Wednesday, March 21, 2007

POVERTY, POLLUTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM:



LINK

Since that link has been acting up-I am going to post the text it contains here. If the author or someone else from the provider has a problem with that just let me know and I will remove it.

POVERTY, POLLUTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM:
STRATEGIES FOR BUILDING HEALTHY AND SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES
Robert D. Bullard, Ph.D.
Environmental Justice Resource Center
Clark Atlanta University
223 James P. Brawley Drive Atlanta, Georgia 30314 USA
(404) 880-69-11 (ph) (404) 880-6909 (fx)
ejrc@cau.edu
Website: www.ejrc.cau.edu

A Discussion Paper prepared for the National Black Environmental Justice Network (NBEJN) Environmental Racism Forum World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) Global Forum Johannesburg, South Africa July 2, 2002
Introduction
Despite significant improvements in environmental protection over the past several decades, over 1.3 billion individuals worldwide live in unsafe and unhealthy physical environments. Hazardous waste generation and international movement of hazardous waste and toxic products pose some important health, environmental, legal, political, and ethical dilemmas.
The systematic destruction of indigenous peoples' land and sacred sites, the poisoning of Native Americans on reservations, Africans in the Niger Delta, African-Americans in Louisiana's "Cancer Alley," Mexicans in the border towns, and Puerto Ricans on the Island of Vieques all have their roots in economic exploitation, racial oppression, devaluation of human life and the natural environment, and corporate greed. [1]
Unequal interests and unequal power arrangements have allowed poisons of the rich to be offered as short-term remedies for poverty of the poor. The last decade has seen numerous developing nations challenge the "unwritten policy" of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries shipping hazardous wastes into their borders. Most people of color communities in the United States and poor nations around the world want jobs and economic development-but not at the expense of public health and the environment.
Why do some communities get dumped on while others escape? Why are environmental regulations vigorously enforced in some communities and not in other communities? Why are some workers protected from environmental and health threats while other workers (such as migrant farm workers) are allowed to be poisoned? How can environmental justice be incorporated into environmental protection? What institutional changes are needed in order to achieve a just and sustainable society? What community organizing strategies and public policies are effective tools against environmental racism?
The paper analyzes the causes and consequences of environmental racism and the strategies environmental justice groups, community-based organizations, and government can use to improve the quality of life for their constituents.
Anatomy of Environmental Racism
The United States is the dominant economic and military force in the world today. The American economic engine has generated massive wealth, high standard of living, and consumerism. This growth machine has also generated waste, pollution, and ecological destruction. The U.S. has some of the best environmental laws in the world. However, in the real world, all communities are not created equal. Environmental regulations have not achieved uniform benefits across all segments of society. [2] Some communities are routinely poisoned while the government looks the other way.
People of color around the world must contend with dirty air and drinking water, and the location of noxious facilities such as municipal landfills, incinerators, hazardous waste treatment, storage, and disposal facilities owned by private industry, government, and even the military.[3] These environmental problems are exacerbated by racism. Environmental racism refers to environmental policy, practice, or directive that differentially affects or disadvantages (whether intended or unintended) individuals, groups, or communities based on race or color. Environmental racism is reinforced by government, legal, economic, political, and military institutions. Environmental racism combines with public policies and industry practices to provide benefits for the countries in the North while shifting costs to countries in the South. [4]
Environmental racism is a form of institutionalized discrimination. Institutional discrimination is defined as "actions or practices carried out by members of dominant (racial or ethnic) groups that have differential and negative impact on members of subordinate (racial and ethnic) groups." [5] The United States is grounded in white racism. The nation was founded on the principles of "free land" (stolen from Native Americans and Mexicans), "free labor" (African slaves brought to this land in chains), and "free men" (only white men with property had the right to vote). From the outset, racism shaped the economic, political and ecological landscape of this new nation.
Environmental racism buttressed the exploitation of land, people, and the natural environment. It operates as an intra-nation power arrangement--especially where ethnic or racial groups form a political and or numerical minority. For example, blacks in the U.S. form both a political and numerical racial minority. On the other hand, blacks in South Africa, under apartheid, constituted a political minority and numerical majority. American and South African apartheid had devastating environmental impacts on blacks. [6]
Environmental racism also operates in the international arena between nations and between transnational corporations. Increased globalization of the world's economy has placed special strains on the eco-systems in many poor communities and poor nations inhabited largely by people of color and indigenous peoples. This is especially true for the global resource extraction industry such as oil, timber, and minerals. [7] Globalization makes it easier for transnational corporations and capital to flee to areas with the least environmental regulations, best tax incentives, cheapest labor, and highest profit.
The struggle of African Americans in Norco, Louisiana and the Africans in the Niger Delta are similar in that both groups are negatively impacted by Shell Oil refineries and unresponsive governments. This scenario is repeated for Latinos in Wilmington (California) and indigenous people in Ecuador who must contend with pollution from Texaco oil refineries. The companies may be different, but the community complaints and concerns are very similar. Local residents have seen their air, water, and land contaminated. Many nearby residents are "trapped" in their community because of inadequate roads, poorly planned emergency escape routes, and faulty warning systems. They live in constant fear of plant explosions and accidents.
The Bhopal tragedy is fresh in the minds of millions of people who live next to chemical plants. The 1984 poison-gas leak at the Bhopal, India Union Carbide plant killed thousands of people--making it the world's deadliest industrial accident. It is not a coincidence that the only place in the U.S. where methyl isocyanate (MIC) was manufactured was at a Union Carbide plant in in predominately African American Institute, West Virginia. [8] In 1985, a gas leak from the Institute Union Carbide plant sent 135 residents to the hospital.
Institutional racism has allowed people of color communities to exist as colonies, areas that form dependent (and unequal) relationships to the dominant white society or "Mother Country" with regard to their social, economic, legal, and environmental administration. Writing more than three decades ago, Carmichael and Hamilton, in their work Black Power, offered the "internal" colonial model to explain racial inequality, political exploitation, and social isolation of African Americans. Carmichael and Hamilton write:
The economic relationship of America's black communities . . . reflects their colonial status. The political power exercised over those communities go hand in glove with the economic deprivation experienced by the black citizens. Historically, colonies have existed for the sole purpose of enriching, in one form or another, the "colonizer"; the consequence is to maintain the economic dependency of the "colonized." [9]
Institutional racism reinforces internal colonialism. Government institutions buttress this system of domination. Institutional racism defends, protects, and enhances the social advantages and privileges of rich nations. Whether by design or benign neglect, communities of color (ranging from the urban ghettos and barrios to rural "poverty pockets" to economically impoverished Native American reservations and developing nations) face some of the worst environmental problems. The most polluted communities are also the communities with crumbling infrastructure, economic disinvestment, deteriorating housing, inadequate schools, chronic unemployment, high poverty, and overloaded health care systems.
The Quest for Environmental Justice
The environmental justice movement has its roots in the United States. However, in just two decades, this grassroots movement has spread across the globe. The call for environmental justice can be heard from the ghetto of Southside Chicago to the Soweto township. The environmental justice movement has come a long way since its humble beginning in 1982 in Warren County, North Carolina where a PCB landfill ignited protests and over 500 arrests. The Warren County protests provided the impetus for a 1983 U.S. General Accounting Office study, Siting of Hazardous Waste Landfills and Their Correlation with Racial and Economic Status of Surrounding Communities. [10] That study revealed that three out of four of the off-site, commercial hazardous waste landfills in Region 4 (which comprises eight states in the southern U.S.) were located in predominantly African-American communities, although African-Americans made up only 20% of the region's population.
The protests also led the Commission for Racial Justice to produce 1987 Toxic Waste and Race, the first national study to correlate waste facility sites and demographic characteristics. [11] Race was found to be the most potent variable in predicting where these facilities were located--more powerful than poverty, land values, and home ownership.
In 1990, Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality chronicled the convergence of two social movements--social justice and environmental movements--into the environmental justice movement. [12] African-American environmental activism emerged from the southern United States, the same region that gave birth to the modern civil rights movement. What started out as local and often isolated community-based struggles against toxics and facility siting blossomed into a multi-issue, multi-ethnic, and multi-regional movement.
The 1991 First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit was probably the most important single event in the movement's history. The Summit broadened the environmental justice movement beyond its anti-toxics focus to include issues of public health, worker safety, land use, transportation, housing, resource allocation, and community empowerment. [13] The meeting also demonstrated that it is possible to build a multi-racial grassroots movement around environmental and economic justice.
Held in Washington, DC, the four-day Summit was attended by over 1,000 grassroots and national leaders from around the world. Delegates came from all fifty states including Alaska and Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, and the Marshall Islands. People attended the Summit to share their action strategies, redefine the environmental movement, and develop common plans for addressing environmental problems affecting people of color in the United States and abroad.
On October 27, 1991, Summit delegates adopted 17 "Principles of Environmental Justice." These principles were developed as a guide for organizing, networking, and relating to government nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). By June 1992, Spanish and Portuguese translations of the Principles were being used and circulated by NGOs and environmental justice groups at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.
Environmental Justice Framework
The dominant environmental protection paradigm manages, regulates, and distributes risks. It also institutionalizes unequal enforcement, trades human health for profit, places the burden of proof on the "victims" and not the polluting industry, legitimates human exposure to harmful chemicals, pesticides, and hazardous substances, promotes "risky" technologies, exploits the vulnerability of economically and politically disenfranchised communities, subsidizes ecological destruction, creates an industry around risk assessment and risk management, delays cleanup actions, and fails to develop pollution prevention as the overarching and dominant strategy.
The U.S. EPA defines environmental justice as the "fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations and policies. Fair treatment means that no group of people, including racial, ethnic, or socio-economic groups should bear a disproportionate share of the negative environmental consequences resulting from industrial, municipal, and commercial operations or the execution of federal, state, local, and tribal programs and policies." [14]
In 1992, the U.S. EPA published Environmental Equity: Reducing Risks for All Communities--the first time the agency embarked on a systematic examination of environmental risks to communities of color. [15] Environmental equity may mean different things to different people. Equity is distilled into three broad categories: procedural, geographic, and social equity.
Procedural equity refers to the "fairness" question: the extent that governing rules, regulations, evaluation criteria, and enforcement are applied uniformly across the board and in a nondiscriminatory way. Unequal protection might result from nonscientific and undemocratic decisions, exclusionary practices, public hearings held in remote locations and at inconvenient times, and use of English-only material as the language to communicate and conduct hearings for non-English speaking publics.
Geographic equity refers to location and spatial configuration of communities and their proximity to environmental hazards, noxious facilities, and locally unwanted land uses (LULUs) such as landfills, incinerators, sewer treatment plants, lead smelters, refineries, and other noxious facilities. For example, unequal protection may result from land-use decisions that determine the location of residential amenities and disamenities. Unincorporated, poor, and communities of color often suffer a "triple" vulnerability of noxious facility siting.
Social Equity assesses the role of sociological factors (race, ethnicity, class, culture, life styles, political power, etc.) on environmental decision making. Poor people and people of color often work in the most dangerous jobs, live in the most polluted neighborhoods, and their children are exposed to all kinds of environmental toxins on the playgrounds and in their homes.
The environmental justice framework rests on developing tools, strategies, and policies to eliminate unfair, unjust, and inequitable conditions and decisions. The framework attempts to uncover the underlying assumptions that may contribute to and produce differential exposure and unequal protection. It brings to the surface the ethical and political questions of "who gets what, when, why, and how much." Some general characteristics of this framework include the following:
The environmental justice framework adopts a public health model of prevention (i.e., elimination of the threat before harm occurs) and the precautionary principle as the preferred strategy.
The environmental justice framework shifts the burden of proof to polluters/dischargers who do harm, who discriminate, or who do not give equal protection to people of color, low-income persons, and other "protected" classes or vulnerable populations.
The environmental justice framework allows disparate impact and statistical weight or an "effect" test, as opposed to "intent," to infer discrimination.
The environmental justice framework redresses disproportionate impact through "targeted" action and resources. In general, this strategy targets resources where environmental and health problems are greatest (as determined by some ranking scheme but not limited to quantitative risk assessment).
The environmental justice paradigm embraces a holistic approach to formulating environmental health policies and regulations, developing risk reduction strategies for multiple, cumulative and synergistic risks, ensuring public health, enhancing public participation in environmental decision-making, promoting community empowerment, building infrastructure for achieving environmental justice and sustainable communities, ensuring interagency cooperation and coordination, developing innovative public/private partnerships and collaboratives, enhancing community-based pollution prevention strategies, ensuring community-based sustainable economic development, and developing geographically-oriented community-wide programming.
Dumping on the Poor
Hazardous waste generation and international movement of hazardous waste still pose some important health, environmental, legal, and ethical dilemmas. The "unwritten" policy of targeting Third World nations for waste trade received international media attention in 1991. Lawrence Summers, at the time he was chief economist of the World Bank, shocked the world and touched off an international firestorm when his confidential memorandum on waste trade was leaked. Summers writes: "'Dirty' Industries: Just between you and me, shouldn't the World Bank be encouraging MORE migration of the dirty industries to the LDCs?" [16] Between 1989 and 1994, an estimated 2,611 metric tons of hazardous waste was exported from Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries to non-OECD countries. [17]
Transboundary Waste Trade Conventions. In a response to the growing exportation of hazardous wastes into their borders, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the G-77 nations mobilized to pass two important international agreements. [18] On January 30, 1991, the Pan-African Conference on Environment and Sustainable Development in Bamako, Mali adopted the Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous wastes within Africa or the Bamako Convention. [19]
The G-77 nations were instrumental in amending the Basel Convention to include Decision II/12, despite opposition from the United States. On September 1995, the third Conference of Parties to the Basel Convention (COP III) approved an amendment that would ban the export of hazardous wastes from highly industrialized countries (specifically OECD countries and Lichtenstein) to all other countries. [20] While Bamako and Basel may have made certain dumping formally illegal, in practice they have not prevented the transboundary movement of hazardous waste to developing countries. Loopholes still allow hazardous wastes to enter countries that do not have the resources or infrastructure to handle the wastes. For example, Karliner reports that "products such as pesticides and other chemicals banned or severely restricted by the United States, Western Europe and Japan because of their acute toxicity, environmental persistence or carcinogenic qualities are still regularly sent to the Third World." [21] Having laws or treaties on the books and enforcing them are two different things.
Whether at home or abroad, environmental racism disadvantages people of color while providing advantages and privileges for whites. A form of illegal "exaction" forces people of color to pay costs of environmental benefits for the public at large. The question of who pays and who benefits from the current industrial and development policies is central to any analysis of environmental racism.
U.S.-Mexico Border Ecology. The conditions surrounding the more than 1,900 maquiladoras, assembly plants operated by American, Japanese, and other foreign countries, located along the 2,000-mile U.S.-Mexico border may further exacerbate the waste trade. The industrial plants use cheap Mexican labor to assemble imported components and raw material and then ship finished products back to the United States. Over a half million Mexican workers are employed in the maquiladoras.
All along the Lower Rio Grande River Valley maquiladoras dump their toxic wastes into the river, from which 95 percent of the region's residents get their drinking water. [22] In the border cities of Brownsville, Texas and Matamoras, Mexico, the rate of anencephaly---babies born without brains---is four times the national average. Affected families filed lawsuits against 88 of the area's 100 maquiladoras for exposing the community to xylene, a cleaning solvent that can cause brain hemorrhages, and lung and kidney damage.
The Mexican environmental regulatory agency is understaffed and ill-equipped to adequately enforce its laws. Many of the Mexican border towns have now become cities with skyscrapers and freeways. More important, the "brown pallor of these southwestern skies has become a major health hazards." [23]
Radioactive Colonialism and Threatened Native Lands. There is a direct correlation between exploitation of land and exploitation of people. It should not be a surprise to anyone to discover that Native Americans have to contend with some of the worst pollution in the United States. [24] Native American nations have become prime targets for waste trading. [25] The vast majority of these waste proposals have been defeated by grassroots groups on the reservations. However, "radioactive colonialism" is alive and well. Winona LaDuke sums up this "toxic invasion" of Native lands as follows:
While Native peoples have been massacred and fought, cheated, and robbed of their historical lands, today their lands are subject to some of most invasive industrial interventions imaginable. According to the Worldwatch Institute, 317 reservations in the United States are threatened by environmental hazards, ranging from toxic wastes to clearcuts.
Reservations have been targeted as sites for 16 proposed nuclear waste dumps. Over 100 proposals have been floated in recent years to dump toxic waste in Indian communities. Seventy-seven sacred sites have been disturbed or desecrated through resource extraction and development activities. The federal government is proposing to use Yucca Mountain, sacred to the Shone, a dumpsite for the nation's high-level nuclear waste. [26]
Radioactive colonialism operates in energy production (mining of uranium) and disposal of wastes on Indian lands. The legacy of institutional racism has left many sovereign Indian nations without an economic infrastructure to address poverty, unemployment, inadequate education and health care, and a host of other social problems.
In 1999, Eastern Navajo reservation residents filed suit with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to block a permit for uranium mining in Church Rock and Crown Point, New Mexico. The Mohave tribe in California, Skull Valley Goshutes in Idaho, and Western Shoshone in Yucca Mountain, Nevada are fighting the construction of a radioactive waste dumps on their tribal lands.
The threats to indigenous peoples are not solely confined to the United States. Native and indigenous people all cross the globe are threatened with extinction due to the greed of mining and oil companies and "development genocide." Sociologist Al Gedicks' 2001 book Resource Rebels: Native Challenges to Mining and Oil Corporations traces the development of grassroots multiracial transnational movement that is countering this form of environmental racism. [27] Over 5,000 members of the U'Wa tribe of Colombia have organized to prevent Occidental from drilling on sacred U'Wa land.
The Threat from Military Toxics. Private industry does not have a monopoly on ecological threats to communities of color. War and military activities are also big players. The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) has left its nightmarish nuclear weapons garbage on Native lands and the Pacific Islands. In fact, "over the last 45 years, there have been 1,000 atomic explosions on Western Shoshone land in Nevada, making the Western Shoshone the most bombed nation on earth." [28]
The Marshall Islands residents live under a constant threat from radioactive contamination from weapons testing. Many island residents were uprooted, relocated, and displaced from their homeland-never to be fully compensated for their losses. For decades, island residents have waged a campaign for reparations from the U.S. government.
The military has also spoiled pristine lands in Alaska. Over 648 U.S. military installations, both active and abandoned, in Alaska are polluting the land, groundwater, wetlands, streams and air with extensive fuel spill, pesticides, solvents, PCBs, dioxins, munitions, and radioactive materials. Many of these military installations are in close proximity to Alaska Native villages and traditional hunting and fishing areas. Military toxics threaten the way of life of Alaska Natives. [29]
Residents on the island of Vieques, Puerto Rico are engaged in a heated battle against the U.S. Navy. The tiny island is inhabited by 9,000 residents who are bordered on both sides by the Navy. The Navy has used the U.S. commonwealth island as a bombing range since 1941. In 1999, a stray Marine Corps bomb killed a civilian security guard. [30] Over 600 protesters have been arrested. Opponents contend that the bombing exercises threaten the environment and health of island residents. Several studies point to health-problems which are directly related to the level of noise coming from the ship-to-shore shelling of Vieques. [31]
Residential Apartheid and Discriminatory Zoning
In the real world, all communities are not created equal. Government and industry are major perpetrators of environmental injustice. [32] Racism is a potent factor in sorting people into their physical environment. Racism influences land use, housing patterns, and infrastructure development. [33]
Zoning is probably the most widely applied mechanism to regulate and use. Zoning laws broadly define land for residential, commercial, or industrial uses, and may impose narrower land-use restrictions (e.g., minimum and maximum lot size, number of dwellings per acre, square feet and height of buildings, etc.).
Exclusionary zoning has been used to zone against something rather than for something. On the other hand, "expulsive" zoning has pushed out residential and allowed "dirty" industries to invade communities. Largely the poor, people of color, and renters inhabit the most vulnerable communities. With or without zoning, deed restrictions or other devices, various groups are unequally able to protect their environmental interests. More often than not, people of color communities get shortchanged in the neighborhood protection game. Race still plays a significant part in distributing public "benefits" and public "burdens" associated with economic growth. The roots of racial discrimination are deep and have been difficult to eliminate.
Racism in the United States
Apartheid-type housing and development policies in the U.S. have resulted in limited mobility, reduced neighborhood options, decreased environmental choices, and diminished job opportunities for people of color. Home ownership is still a major part of the "American Dream." Housing discrimination contributes to the physical decay of inner-city neighborhoods and denies a substantial segment of African Americans and other people of color a basic form of wealth accumulation and investment through home ownership. [34]The number of African American homeowners would probably be higher in the absence of discrimination by lending institutions. Only about 59 percent of the nation's middle-class African Americans own their homes, compared with 74 percent of whites. [35]
Eight out of every ten African Americans live in neighborhoods where they are in the majority. Residential segregation decreases for most racial and ethnic groups with additional education, income, and occupational status. However, this scenario does not hold true for African Americans. African Americans, no matter what their educational or occupational achievement or income level, are exposed to higher crime rates, less effective educational systems, high mortality risks, more dilapidated surroundings, and greater environmental threats because of their race. For example, in the heavily populated South Coast air basin of the Los Angeles area, it is estimated that over 71 percent of African Americans and 50 percent of Latinos reside in areas with the most polluted air, while only 34 percent of whites live in highly polluted areas. [36]
It has been difficult for millions of Americans in segregated neighborhoods to say "not in my backyard" (NIMBY) if they do not have a backyard. Nationally, 46.3 percent of African Americans and 36.2 percent of Latinos own their homes compared to over two-thirds of the nation as a whole. Homeowners are the strongest advocates of the NIMBY positions taken against locally unwanted land uses or LULUs such as the construction of garbage dumps, landfills, incinerators, sewer treatment plants, recycling centers, prisons, drug treatment units, and public housing projects. Generally, white communities have greater access than people of color communities when it comes to influencing land use and environmental decision making.
The ability of an individual to escape a health-threatening physical environment is usually related to affluence. However, racial and ethnic barriers complicate this process. The imbalance between residential amenities and land uses assigned to central cities and suburbs cannot be explained by class factors alone. People of color and whites do not have the same opportunities to "vote with their feet" and escape undesirable physical environments.
Institutional racism continues to influence housing and mobility options available to African Americans of all income levels---and is a major factor that influences quality of neighborhoods they have available to them. The "web of discrimination" in the housing market is a result of action and inaction of local and federal government officials, financial institutions, insurance companies, real estate marketing firms, and zoning boards. More stringent enforcement mechanisms and penalties are needed to combat all forms of discrimination.
Some residential areas and their inhabitants are at a greater risk than the larger society from unregulated growth, ineffective regulation of industrial toxins, and public policy decisions authorizing industrial facilities that favor those with political and economic clout. People of color communities are often victims of land-use decision making that mirrors the power arrangements of the dominant society.
Historically, exclusionary zoning (and rezoning) has been a subtle form of using government authority and power to foster and perpetuate discriminatory practices-including environmental planning. Zoning ordinances, deed restrictions, and other land-use mechanisms have been widely used as a "NIMBY" (not in my backyard) tool, operating through exclusionary practices. In Houston, Texas, the only major American city that does not have zoning, NIMBY was replaced with the policy of "PIBBY" (place in blacks back yard). The city government and private industry targeted landfills, incinerators, and garbage dumps for Houston's black neighborhoods for more than five decades. Black neighborhood were rendered "invisible." [37] Racism lowered residents' property values, accelerated physical deterioration, and increased disinvestments in the community. A similar discriminatory facility siting pattern have been discovered in people of color communities across the United States. [38]
Racism in Brazil
Racism is still an important factor in explaining social inequality, political exploitation, social isolation, and health and well being of blacks in Brazil, South Africa, and the United States. Racism plays a major role in sorting people into Brazil's favelas, South Africa's townships, and the United States' ghettos, barrios, and reservations. Racism provides privileges for "whiteness" at the expense of blacks. [39]
Race remains an important indicator of privilege in Brazilian society. Racism maintains "white supremacy" in Brazil. Race is the main factor determining an individual's social and economic position in Brazilian society. [40] Brazilian society still maintains an "unofficial caste system" based on color. In this system, brancos (whites) remain at the top, people of mixed racial ancestry (mulattos, mestios, morenos, coboclos, etc.) occupy the middle sector, and blacks (pretos) occupy the lowest rung. [41] Nearly half of Brazil's 165 million people are of African descent, the largest black population outside Nigeria. Yet, only 6 percent of the population classify themselves as black. Brazil's "racial democracy" is a myth (Astor, 2000).
A visit to the hundreds of favelas or shantytowns of Rio de Janeiro reveals the faces of racism up close and personal. In the early days of settlement, wealthy inhabitants claimed the land near beaches and harbor, leaving the step, inaccessible hillside to the poor. Over one third of Rio's eleven million people live in the poverty-stricken shantytowns perched precariously along the mountainsides in the hills of the metropolis.
Some of the favelas are more than 100 years old. Others are newer. Whether old or new, the problems are the same. Most favela residents are poor and uneducated. Crime and drug trafficking take a heavy toll on residents. While one may find persons of all colors in the favelas, the color most often seen is black. The densely populated favelas are cities within the city where sanitation, water, fire, police, hospitals and health, and transportation services are not guaranteed. Most of the favelas also lack drivable roads and adequate infrastructure (Hart, 2000; Gewertz, 2000). Racism harms the environment and the favela inhabitants. Residents build flimsy houses on the hillsides where the terrain is fragile. Many are killed and injured by frequent landslides.
Racism in South Africa
Section 24 of the South African Constitution states that "Everyone has the right: (a) to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being, and (b) to have the environment protected for the benefit of present and future generations." (South African Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 1996: 7). The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, while speaking directly to the environment, is very serious about "equal protection for all." Nevertheless, blacks in the U.S. and blacks in South African have had to grapple with the legacy of legalized segregation or apartheid and dismantling "separate and unequal."
The environmental and health crisis faced by present-day South African originates through the combination of poor land, forced overcrowding, poverty, importation of hazardous waste, inadequate sewage, dumping of toxic chemical into the rivers, strip mining of coal and uranium, and outdated methods of producing synthetic fuels. Apartheid herded approximately 87 percent of the black population into 13 percent of the country's territory. Such a policy spelled environmental disaster (Kalan, 1994).
Government Response
After much prodding from environmental justice activists and advocates, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) acknowledged its mandate to protection all Americans. The EPA defines environmental justice as: "The fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations and policies. Fair treatment means that no group of people, including racial, ethnic, or socio-economic groups should bear a disproportionate share of the negative environmental consequences resulting from industrial, municipal, and commercial operations or the execution of federal, state, local, and tribal programs and policies." [42]
Today, millions of Americans have heightened concern about the threat of exposure to chemical and biological agents. The tragic events of September 11, 2001 (terrorists attacks on the World Trade Center in New York, the Pentagon in Washington, and the plane crash in Pennsylvania) and the Anthrax scare heightened concern and worry. However, toxic chemical assaults are not new for many people of color who are forced to live next to and often on the fence line with chemical industries that spew their poisons into the air, water, and ground. These residents experience a form of "toxic terror" twenty-four hours a day and seven days a week. When chemical accidents occur, government and industry officials tell residents to "shelter in place." In reality, locked doors and closed windows do not block the chemical assault by polluting industries on the nearby communities.
Increased globalization of the world's economy has placed special strains on the eco-systems in many poor communities and poor nations inhabited largely by people of color and indigenous peoples. [43] Globalization makes it easier for transnational corporations and capital to flee to areas with the least environmental regulations, best tax incentives, highest profit, and cheapest labor. [44]
POVERTY AND POLLUTION - GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
Double Burden -- Poverty and Pollution. Poverty and pollution are intricately linked. [45] Poor people are disproportionately exposed to hazards [46] in their environment that in turn makes them sick due to the lack of clean and fresh water, and adequate food, shelter, fuel and air. [47] Poverty impacts health [48] because it determines how much resources poor people have and defines the amount of environmental risks [49] they will be exposed to in their immediate environment. It is the "poorest of the poor", that one-fifth of the world's population living on less than $1 a day and unable to secure adequate food, water, clothing, shelter, and health care, who is most vulnerable to environmental threats. Most of the governments in the poorest part of the world spend around $10 per person per year on health care. [50]
Over 25 percent of all preventable illnesses are directly caused by environmental factors. [51] Almost one third of the global burden of disease falls on the most vulnerable population-children under 5 years of age who constitute no more than 12% of the world's population. Three environmental problems (contaminated drinking water, untreated human excrement, and air pollution) account for 7.7 million deaths annually or 15 percent of the global death toll of 52 million. One in five children in the poorest regions of the world will not live to see their fifth birthday, mainly because of environment-related diseases, i.e., mostly due to malaria, acute respiratory infections or diarrhoea-all of which are largely preventable. This amounts to 11 million childhood deaths a year worldwide. [52]
Inadequate Sanitation. Of the 7.7 million deaths, five million deaths result from poor drinking water, poor sanitation, and lack of infrastructure. More than one billion people in developing countries live without adequate shelter or in unacceptable housing and more than 2.9 billion people have no access to adequate sanitation and all of these are necessary for good health. [53] Lack of sanitary conditions contributes each year to approximately 2 billion diarrhea infections and 4 million deaths, mostly among infants and young children in developing countries. [54] In the United States, inadequate sanitation accounts for 940,000 diarrhea infections and about 900 deaths each year.
Water Poverty. An estimated one-sixth of the world's population (1.1 billion people) remains without access to improved sources of water. More than 1.4 billion people lack access to safe water. Dirty water is the worlds "deadliest" pollutant. [55]
In-Door Air Pollution. Air pollutants adversely affect the health of 4 to 5 billion people worldwide. A growing world population is burning more fossil fuels, emitting more industrial pollution and driving more automobiles. Over 2.7 million annual global deaths can be attributed to air pollution. [56] Two-thirds of the global air-pollution related deaths occur in rural areas, where the burning of biomass fuel. Over 3.5 billion people, mostly in rural areas, are exposed to high level of air pollutants in their homes. An estimated 2 million deaths result from exposure to stove smoke inside their homes. [57]
Access to Clean Energy. More than two billion people in the world today do not have access to sufficient energy to meet their basic needs. Some 80 percent of all energy used in the world comes from fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are the main contributors to environmental and health problems. In 1998, new renewable energy accounted for only about 2% of all primary energy consumption globally.
Childhood Lead Poisoning. In most large cities in the developing world the percentage of children affected by lead poisoning is staggering. Motor vehicles account fro up to 90 percent of all airborne lead contamination in urban areas where leaded gasoline is still widely used. Although lead from air pollution causes relatively few deaths, it causes a great deal of disability, particularly among children. According to the Global Lead Network, 47 countries has completed phase-out of leaded gasoline in January 2002. [58] However, many other countries and regions still sue gasoline with high lead content, including Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. The World Health Organization estimates the effect of lead poisoning to be about 1 to 3 points of IQ lost for each 10 ug/dl lead level. At higher levels, the effect may be larger. Lead affects almost every organ and system in the body-including the kidneys and the reproductive system. Recent studies supported by NIEHS suggest that a young person's lead burden is not only linked to lower IQ and lower high school graduation rates but to increased delinquency. An estimated 16 percent of juvenile delinquent behavior in the U.S. is attributable to high lead exposure. [59]
Toxic Production. An estimated 40 percent of world deaths can now be attributed to various environmental factors, especially organic and chemical pollutants. Approximately 80,000 different chemicals are now in commercial use with nearly six trillion pounds produced annually in the United States. [60] More than 80% of these chemicals have never been screened to learn whether they cause cancer, much less tested to see if they harm the nervous system, the immune system, the endocrine system or the reproductive system. [61] The current U.S. approach is also not based on real life exposures since people and animals are not exposed to one chemical in isolation, but rather are exposed to an array of toxic chemicals. [62] Of the top 20 chemicals reported to the U.S. Federal EPA under the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) as those released in the largest quantities in 1997, nearly 75 percent are known or suspected neurotoxins.
Pesticide Poisoning. Nearly 3.3 million pounds of pesticide product were exported from the U.S. between 1997 and 2000. [63] The bulk of these products were shipped directly or indirectly to the developing world. Pesticide poisoning continues to be a severe environmental and health problem in developing countries. An estimated 25 million poor farmers and farmworkers suffer from pesticide poisoning each year; hundreds of thousands die. [64] In the U.S. between 3-5 million migrant farm workers labor in the fields at low wages and unsafe, unsanitary, and unjust work conditions.
Cancer and the Environment. Of the 80,000 pesticides and other chemical in use today, 10 percent are recognized as carcinogens. [65] There are more than 8 million Americans who have cancer. [66] Cancer-related deaths in the U.S. increased from 331,000 in 1970 to 521,000 in 1992, with an estimated 30,000 death attributed to chemical exposure. [67] The fraction of cancer deaths caused by occupational exposures vary from four per cent to over 20 per cent due to the lack of data on the carcinogenic potential of most industrial chemicals and the absence of effective public health surveillance systems for occupational disease. [68]
Toxics on the U.S.-Mexico Border. All along the Lower Rio Grande River Valley maquiladoras dump their toxic waste into the river, from which over 95 percent of the region's residents get their drinking water. Shantytowns or colonias are home to 1 of every 5 residents of the 14 Texas counties along the U.S.-Mexico border. Of the 11 million border inhabitants, about 50% live in the three twin cities of: Ciudad Ju‡rez -- El Paso; Mexicali -- Calexico; and Tijuana -- San Diego. In 1998, about 3,000 maquiladoras were in operation within the country of Mexico, of which 2,400 were situated in the border region. In 1997,maquiladoras employed more than 900,000 people working at more than 3,000 plants, mainly along the border. Heavy exposure to toxics is not limited to workers. The maquiladoras produce large quantities of hazardous waste, little of which finds it way back to the country of origin for proper disposal. In addition, the air and water of local residential communities is fouled by toxic emissions in the air and untreated industrial waste.
POVERTY AND POLLUTION IN THE UNITED STATES
Toxic Foods. The United States has one of the safest food supplies in the world. Still, Food borne diseases cause approximately 76 million illnesses, 325 000 hospitalizations, and 5 000 deaths in the U.S. each year. [69] Known food borne pathogens account for 14 million of the illnesses, 60,000 hospitalizations and 1,800 deaths. [70] Unknown agents account for approximately 81% of food borne illnesses and hospitalizations and 64% of deaths. [71]
Number One Environmental Threat to Children. In many African cities, childhood lead poisoning can be as high as 90 percent. Even in the United States, lead poisoning continues to be the number one environmental health threat to children, especially poor children, children of color, and children living in inner cities. [72] Lead poisoning affects an estimated 890,000 American preschoolers or 4.4 percent of the under 5 age group. [73] African children are five times more likely to be poisoned than white children. Some 22 percent of African American children living in pre-1946 housing are lead poisoned, compared with 5.6 percent of white children and 13 percent of Mexican American living in older homes.
Geography of Air Pollution. The number of automobiles is increasing three times faster than the rate of population growth. According to National Argonne Laboratory researchers, 57 percent of whites, 65 percent of African Americans, and 80 percent of Hispanics live in 437 counties with substandard air quality. [74] In the heavily populated Los Angeles air basin, the South Coast Air Quality Management District estimates that 71 percent of African Americans and 50 percent of Latinos live in areas with the most polluted air, compared to 34 percent of whites. Air pollution costs Americans $10 to $200 billion a year. [75]
Asthma Epidemic. The number of asthma sufferers doubled from 6.7 million in 1980 to 17.3 million in 1998. [76] Over 4.8 asthma sufferers are children. [77] Asthma hits poor, inner-city dwellers, and people of color hardest. African Americans and Latino are almost three times more likely than whites to die from asthma. [78] In 1995, more than 5,000 Americans died from asthma. [79] The hospitalization rate for African Americans and Latinos is 3 to 4 times the rate for whites. [80] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that asthma accounts for more than 10 million lost school days, 1.2 million emergency room visits, 15 million outpatient visits, and over 500,000 hospitalizations each year. Asthma cost Americans over $14.5 billion in 2000. [81]
Toxic Wastes and Race. Nationally, three out of five African Americans and Latino Americans live in communities with abandoned toxic waste sites. [82] Discrimination influences land use, housing patterns, and infrastructure development. Zoning ordinances, deed restrictions, and other land-use mechanisms have been widely used as a "NIMBY" [83] (not in my backyard) tool, operating through exclusionary practices. [84] The U.S. General Accounting Office estimates that there are between 130,000 and 450,000 brownfields [85] (abandoned waste sites) scattered across the urban landscape from New York to California. Most of these brownfields are located in or near low-income, working class, and people of color communities. [86]
Toxic Housing. A 2000 study by The Morning News and the University of Texas-Dallas found that some 870,000 of the 1.9 million (46 percent) housing units for the poor, mostly minorities, sit within about a mile of factories that reported toxic emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency. [87] Homeowners have been the most effective groups to use "NIMBY" (Not in My Back Yard) tactics and practices in keeping locally unwanted land uses (LULUs) out of their back yards and communities. However, racial discrimination prevents millions of people of color from enjoying the advantages of home ownership. A little over 46 percent of African Americans and Latinos own their homes compared with 73 percent of whites in 1999. If blacks and Hispanics owned homes at the same rate as whites of similar age and income, their homeownership rates would have been 61 percent in 1998 versus 72 percent for whites. [88] African American and Latino American households, on average, must pay discrimination "tax" of roughly $3,700. [89]
Toxic Schools. More than 600,000 students in Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Michigan and California were attending nearly 1,200 public schools that are located within a half mile of federal Superfund or state-identified contaminated sites. [90] No state except California has a law requiring school officials to investigate potentially contaminated property and no federal or state agency keeps records of public or private schools that operate on or near toxic waste or industrial sites. [91]
Toxic Jobs. Farm work is the second most dangerous occupation in the United States. Farm workers suffer from the highest rate of chemical injuries of any workers in the United States. EPA estimates that pesticide exposure causes farmworkers and their families to suffer between 10,000 to 20,000 immediate illnesses annually, and additional thousands of illnesses later in life. [92] Of the 25 most heavily used agricultural pesticides, 5 are toxic to the nervous system; 18 are skin, eye, or lung irritants, 11 have been classified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as cancer-causing; 17 cause genetic damage; and 10 cause reproductive problems (in test of laboratory animals). [93] Annual use of the pesticides causing each of these types of health problems totals between one and four hundred million pounds. [94]
Farms employing less than 10 workers are exempt from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Over 85% of migrant farm workers work on farms with fewer than 10 employees. Over 80% of migrant farm workers in the U.S. are Latinos. An estimated 250,000 children of farm workers in the U.S. migrate each year, and 90,000 of them migrate across an international borders; half of all migrant children have worked in fields still wet with pesticide and more than one third have been sprayed directly; over 72.8% of migrant children are completely without health insurance.
An estimated of 137 American workers die from job-related diseases every day. [95] This is more than eight times the number of workers who die from job-related accidents. Fear of unemployment acts as a potent incentive for many workers to stay in and accept jobs that are health threatening. This practice amounts to "economic blackmail." Workers are often forced to choose between unemployment and a job that may result in risks to their health, their family's health, and the health of their community.
The U.S. Department of Labor estimates that more than half of the country's 22,000 sewing shops violate minimum wage and overtime laws. [96] Many of these workers labor in dangerous conditions including blocked fire exits, unsanitary bathrooms, and poor ventilation. Government surveys also reveal that 75% of U.S. garment shops violate safety and health laws. [97]
Military Toxics. The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) has left its nightmarish nuclear weapons garbage on Native lands and the Pacific Islands. In fact, "over the last 45 years, there have been 1,000 atomic explosions on Western Shoshone land in Nevada, making the Western Shoshone the most bombed nation on earth." [98] Over 648 U.S. military installations, both active and abandoned, in Alaska are polluting the land, groundwater, wetlands, streams and air with extensive fuel spill, pesticides, solvents, PCBs, dioxins, munitions, and radioactive materials. Many of these military installations are in close proximity to Alaska Native villages and traditional hunting and fishing areas. Military toxics threaten the way of life of Alaska Natives.
The U.S. Navy has used the tiny island of Vieques, Puerto Rico as a bombing range since 1941. [99] Fifty years of military exercises including the use of bombs, artillery shells, depleted uranium ordnance, and napalm have left local communities with serious health problems and destroyed ecosystems. Nearly three-fourths of the island's 9,000 residents live in poverty. Soils are degraded and contaminated, and both Navy and independent testing of bombing areas have found at least 10 toxic constituents including metals, benzene, and chloroform.
Radioactive Colonialism. There is a direct correlation between exploitation of land and exploitation of people. It should not be a surprise to anyone to discover that Native Americans have to contend with some of the worst pollution in the United States. Native American nations have become prime targets for waste trading. [100] The vast majority of these waste proposals have been defeated by grassroots groups on the reservations. However, "radioactive colonialism" is alive and well. Winona LaDuke sums up this "toxic invasion" of Native lands as follows:
While Native peoples have been massacred and fought, cheated, and robbed of their historical lands, today their lands are subject to some of most invasive industrial interventions imaginable. According to the Worldwatch Institute, 317 reservations in the United States are threatened by environmental hazards, ranging from toxic wastes to clearcuts.
Reservations have been targeted as sites for 16 proposed nuclear waste dumps. Over 100 proposals have been floated in recent years to dump toxic waste in Indian communities. Seventy-seven sacred sites have been disturbed or desecrated through resource extraction and development activities. The federal government is proposing to use Yucca Mountain, sacred to the Shone, a dumpsite for the nation's high-level nuclear waste. [101]
Radioactive colonialism operates in energy production (mining of uranium) and disposal of wastes on Indian lands. The legacy of institutional racism has left many sovereign Indian nations without an economic infrastructure to address poverty, unemployment, inadequate education and health care, and a host of other social problems.
Eastern Navajo reservation residents have been struggling to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission form permitting a uranium mine in Church Rock and Crown Point, New Mexico. The Mohave tribe in California, Skull Valley Goshutes in Idaho, and Western Shoshone in Yucca Mountain, Nevada are currently fighting proposals to build radioactive waste dumps on their tribal lands. Native and indigenous people all cross the globe are threatened with extinction due to the greed of mining and oil companies and "development genocide." A growing grassroots multiracial transnational movement has emerged to counter this form of environmental racism. [102]
Climate Justice. Climate justice looms as major environmental justice issue of the 21st century. [103] The United States emits one quarter of the world's gases that cause global warming. People of color are concentrated in cities that failed EPA's ambient air quality standards. Global warming is expected to double the number of cities that currently exceed air quality standards. A study of the fifteen largest American cities found that climate change would increase heat-related deaths by at least 90 percent. People of color are twice as likely to die in a heat wave. Global warming will increase the number of flood, drought and fire occurrences worldwide. Also, low-income people typically lack insurance to replace possessions lost in storms and floods. Only 25 percent of renters have renters insurance. Climate change will reduce discretionary spending because prices will rise across the board. Poor families will have to spend even more on food and electricity, which already represent a large proportion of their budgets. Indigenous people are losing traditional medicinal plants to a warming climate, and subsistence households are suffering from the loss of species that are unable to adapt.
Conclusion
The environmental justice movement emerged in response to environmental inequities, threats to public health, unequal protection, differential enforcement, and disparate treatment received by the poor and people of color. Poverty and environmental degradation are intricately linked and take a heavy toll on billions of people in developing and industrialized countries alike. Thus, any search for sustainable development must address the root causes of both poverty and pollution and seek solutions to this double threat.
Redefinition of Environmental Protection. The environmental justice movement redefined environmental protection as a basic right. It also emphasized pollution prevention, waste minimization, and cleaner production techniques as strategies to achieve environmental justice for all without regard to race, color, national origin, or income. Many countries have environmental and human laws to protect the health and welfare of its citizens-including racial and ethnic groups and indigenous peoples. However, all communities have not received the same benefits from their application, implementation, and enforcement.
Design a Holistic Approach to Environmental Protection. The environmental justice movement has set out clear goals of eliminating unequal enforcement of environmental, civil rights, and public health laws, differential exposure of some populations to harmful chemicals, pesticides, and other toxins in the home, school, neighborhood, and workplace, faulty assumptions in calculating, assessing, and managing risks, discriminatory zoning and land-use practices, and exclusionary policies and practices that limit some individuals and groups from participation in decision making. Many of these problems could be eliminated if existing environmental, health, housing, and civil rights laws were vigorously enforced in a nondiscriminatory way.
Clean and Affordable Energy. Governments should initiate an action program to make available finances and infrastructure to bring clean and affordable and sustainable energy sources to the 2 billion people who lack these energy service by 2012. Governments should adopt a target increasing the global share of new renewable energy sources to 15% by 2010.
Decrease Pesticide Use. Institute protocols and plan to decrease pesticide use, including prohibiting the export of banned or never registered pesticides, implement integrated pest management (IPM), evaluate the hazards posed by pesticide exports, and improve the quality and quantity of information pesticide production, trade and use and publish information in the public record.
Reduce Children's Exposure to Neurotoxicants. Abate lead in older housing; complete phase-out leaded gasoline; target high-risk children, screening, early detection, treatment; increase allocation of medications that help reduce or remove lead; use new, safe lead removal techniques; and dietary improvements.
Strengthen Legislation and Regulations. A legislative approach may be needed where environmental, health, and worker safety laws and regulations are weak or nonexistent. However, laws and regulations are only as good as their enforcement. Unequal political power arrangements also have allowed poisons of the rich to be offered as short term economic remedies for poverty.
Design Strategies to Combat Economic Blackmail. There is little or no correlation between proximity of industrial plants and employment opportunities of nearby residents. Having industrial facilities in one's community does not automatically translate into jobs for nearby residents. Many industrial plants are located at the fence line with the communities. Some are so close that local residents could walk to work. More often than not, poor are stuck with the pollution and poverty, while other people commute in for the industrial jobs.
Close Corporate Welfare Loopholes. Tax breaks and corporate welfare programs have produced few new jobs by polluting firms. However, state-sponsored pollution and lax enforcement have allowed many communities of color and poor communities to become the dumping grounds. Industries and governments (including the military) have often exploited the economic vulnerability of poor communities, poor states, poor nations, and poor regions for their unsound, "risky", and nonsustainable operations. Environmental justice leaders are demanding that no community or nation, rich or poor, urban or suburban, black or white, should be allowed to become a "sacrifice zone" or dumping grounds. They are also pressing governments to live up to their mandate of protecting public health and the environment.
Forge International Cooperative Agreements. Governments will need to take responsibility and develop policies that address global environmental racism. The poisoning of African-Americans in Louisiana's "Cancer Alley," Native Americans on reservations, and Mexicans in the border towns all have their roots in the same economic system, a system characterized by economic exploitation, racial oppression, and devaluation of human life and the natural environment.
Environmental Reparations. The call for environmental and economic justice does not stop at the U.S. borders but extends to communities and nations that have been the "victims" of economic exploitation via the export of hazardous wastes, toxic products, "dirty" industries, indigenous resource extraction, and nonsustainable development practices. Much of the world does not get to share in the benefits of the United States' high standard of living. From energy consumption to the production and export of tobacco, pesticides, and other chemicals, more and more of the world's peoples are sharing the health and environmental burden of the United States' wasteful throw-away culture. Hazardous wastes and "dirty" industries have followed the "path of least resistance." Poor people and poor nations are given a false choice of "no jobs and no development" versus "risky low-paying jobs and pollution."
Building A Global Environmental Justice Movement. The environmental justice movement has begun to build a global network of grassroots groups, community based organizations, university-based resource centers, researchers, scientists, educators, and youth groups. Better communication and funding is needed in every area. Resources are especially scare for environmental justice and anti-racist groups in developing countries. The Internet has proven to be a powerful tool for those groups who that have access to the worldwide web. Erasing the "digital divide" becomes a major strategy to combat environmental racism.
__________
Robert D. Bullard is the Ware Professor of Sociology and Director of the Environmental Justice Resource Center, Clark Atlanta University, 223 James P. Brawley Drive, Atlanta, GA 30314. Phone: (404) 880-6911; Fax: (404) 880-6909; E-mail: ejrc@cau.edu.
1. Robert D. Bullard, Confronting Environmental Racism: Voices from the Grassroots. Boston: South End Press, 1993.
2. Robert W. Collin and Robin Morris Collin (1998). "The Role of Communities in Environmental Decisions: Communities Speaking for Themselves," Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation 13: 3789.
3. Laura Westra and Peter S. Wentz (1995). Faces of Environmental Racism: Confronting Issues of Global Justice. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.; Luke Cole and Sheila R. Foster (2001). From the Ground Up: Environmental Racism and the Rise of the Environmental Justice Movement. New York: New York University Press.
4. Bullard, Confronting Environmental Racism, Chapter 1.
5. Joe R. Feagin and Clarece B. Feagin, Discrimination American Style: Institutional Racism and Sexism. Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger (1986); Christopher Bates Doob, Racism: An American Cauldron. New York: Harper Collins, 1993.
6. Alan B. Durning, "Apartheid's Environmental Toll," Worldwatch Paper 95. Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute (May 1990); Heteen Kalan, "Apartheid and the Environment: Polluting the Poor," Toward Freedom (January 1994); South African Department of Environment and Tourism (1996). An Environmental Policy for South Africa: Green Paper for Public Discussion. (October). Posted on the South African government website at www.policy.org.za/govdoc/green_papers/enviro.html.
7. Al Gedicks, Resource Rebels: Native Challenges to Mining and Oil Corporations. Boston: South End Press, 2001; Winona LaDuke, All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land Rights and Life. Boston: South End Press, 1999.; Joshua Karliner, The Corporate Planet: Ecology and Politics in the Age of Globalization. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1997.
8. Robert D. Bullard, Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class and Environmental Quality. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000.
9. Stokeley Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, Black Power. New York: Vintage, 1967, pp. 16-17.
10. U.S. General Accounting Office, Siting of Hazardous Waste Landfills and Their Correlation with Racial and Economic Status of Surrounding Communities. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1983.
11. Commission for Racial Justice, Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States. New York: United Church of Christ, 1987.
12. Bullard, Dumping in Dixie, Chapter 1.
13. Charles Lee, Proceedings: The First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit, New York: United Church of Christ Commission for Racial Justice, 1992.
14. U.S. EPA, Guidance for Incorporating Environmental Justice in EPA's NEPA Compliance Analysis. Washington, DC: EPA, 1998; Council on Environmental Quality, Environmental Justice: Guidance Under the National Environmental Policy Act. Washington, DC: CEQ (December 10, 1997).
15. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Equity: Reducing Risk for All Communities. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, 1992.
16. Greenpeace, "The Case for a Ban on All Hazardous Waste Shipment from the United States and Other OECD Member States to Non-OECD States," (June 1993 ), pp. 1-2.
17. Greenpeace, The Database of Known Hazardous Waste Exports from OECD ro Non-OECD Countries. 1989-1994. Washington, DC: Greenpeace, 1994.
18. Rozelia S. Park, "An Examinatioin of International Environmental Racism Through the Lens of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes," Indiana University Law School Journal (1999), Website: www.law.indiana.edu/glsj/vol5/no2/14/14parks.html.
19. Bamako Convention, Bamako Convention on the Ban of The Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes Within Africa, opened for signature (Jan. 29, 1991).
20. Mary Tiemann, Congressional Research Service Report to Congress Waste Trade and the Basel Convention: Background and Update (December 30, 1998).
21. Karliner, The Corporate Planet, p. 152.
22. Beatriz Johnston, Hernandez, "Dirty Growth," The New Internationalist (August 1993).
23. Tom Barry and Beth Simms, The Challenge of Cross Border Environmentalism: The U.S.-Mexico Case. Albuquerque, NM: The Inter-Hemispheric Education Resource Center, 1994, p. 37.
24. Valerie Taliman, "Stuck Holding the Nation's Nuclear Waste," Race, Poverty & Environment Newsletter (Fall 1992), pp. 6-9.
25. Al Gedicks, The New Resource Wars: Native and Environmental Struggles Against Multinational Corporations. Boston: South End Press, 1993.
26. Winona LaDuke, All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land Rights and Life. Boston: South End Press, 1999, pp. 2-3.
27. Gedicks, Resource Rebels.
28. LaDuke, All Our Relations, p. 3.
29. Pamela K. Miller, "The War Against Military Toxics in Alaska," in R.D. Bullard, People of Color Environmental Groups Directory 2000. Flint, MI: Charles Stewart Mott Foundation.
30. Jessica Reaves and Mark Thompson (2001). "Vieques Under Fire: Standoff in Puerto Rico," (April 27), posted on TIME.com website: www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8559,107846,00.html.
31. See CNN.com, "Second Day of Protest Greets Vieques Exercise," (April 28, 2001), posted on CNN.com website: www.cnn.com/2001/US/04/28/vieques.protests/.
32. Robert. D. Bullard, Glenn S. Johnson, and Beverly H. Wright. "Confronting Environmental Injustice: It's The Right Thing to Do." Race, Gender & Class, Vol.5, No.1, 1997: 63-79.
33. Robert D. Bullard, J. Eugene Grigsby, and Charles Lee, Residential Apartheid: The American Legacy. Los Angeles: UCLA Center for African American Studies Publication, 1994.
34. Florence W. Roisman, "The Lessons of American Apartheid: The Necessity and Means of Promoting Residential Racial Integration," Iowa Law Review (December 1995): 479-525.
35. Bullard et al., Residential Apartheid.
36. Eric Mann, L.A.'s Lethal Air: New Strategies for Policy, Organizing, and Action Los Angeles: Labor/Community Strategy Center, 1991.
37. See Robert D. Bullard, Invisible Houston: The Black Experience in Boom and Bust. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 1987.
38. See Bullard, Dumping in Dixie; Robert D. Bullard, Unequal Protection: Environmental Justice and Communities of Color. San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1996.
39. Anthony W. Marx, Making Race and Nation: A Comparison of the United States, South Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998; France W. Twine, Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997; Bullard et al., Residential Apartheid.
40. Twine, Racism in a Racial Democracy.
41. Darin J. Davis, Avoiding the Dark: Race and the Forging of National Culture in Modern Brazil. Research in Migratioin and Ethnic Relations. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Co., 1999.
42. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Guidance for Incorporating Environmental Justice in EPA's NEPA Compliance Analysis. Washington, DC: USEPA, 1998; See Robert Bullard and Glenn Johnson. "Environmental and Economic Justice: Implications for Public Policy." Journal of Public Management & Social Policy, Vol. 4, No.4, 1998: 137-148.
43. Robert Bullard. "Confronting Environmental Racism in the 21st Century." Paper prepared for the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development Conference on Racism and Public Policy, September 2001, Durban, South Africa. http://www.unrisd.org/racism/a-bullard.htm
44. See Robert D. Bullard. "Environmental Racism Shifts the Costs of Industry to the Poor." Daily Mail & Guardian, August 27, 2001, http://www.mg.co.za/archive/2001aug/features/27aug-environmental.html
45. Robert D. Bullard. Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000.
46. Robert D. Bullard and Beverly H. Wright. "Environmental Justice for All: Community Perspectives on Health and Research Needs." Toxicology and Industrial Health, Vol. 9, No. 5, 1993: 821-841.
47. Robert D. Bullard. "It's not just pollution." Our Planet, Vol.12, No.2, 2001: 22-24.
48. Kenneth Olden. "The Complex Interaction of Poverty, Pollution, Health Status." The Scientist 12(2) 7, February 16, 1998; See NIEHS: Division of Extramural Research and Training: Health Disparities Research, http:www.niehs.nih.gov/dert/programs/translat/hd/ko-art.htm
49. Robert D. Bullard. "It's not just pollution." Our Planet, Vol.12, No.2, 2001: 22-24.
50. Nat Quansah, "Pharmacies of life," Our Planet 12 (2001): 12.
51. Thorbjorn Jagland, "Everything Connects." Our Planet Vol. 12, no. 2 (2001): 7.
52. Leslie Roberts, World Resources 1998-1999. London: Oxford University Press, 1998.
53. Kirit S. Parikh. "Poverty and Environment Turning The Poor Into Agents of Environmental Regeneration." (Working Paper Series). United Nations Development Programme Poverty Related Publications, October 1998. See http:www.undp.org/poverty/publications/wkpaper/wp1
54. Geoffrey Lean. "At A Glance," Our Planet Vol. 12, No. 2 (2001): 16.
55. Ibid.
56. Davis J. Tenenbaum, "Tackling the Big Three," Environmental Health Perspective 106 (May, 1998).
57. Ian Johnson and Kseniya Lvosvsky, "Double Burden," Our Planet 12, no. 2 (2001): 19.
58. Global Lead Network, "Worldwide Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline," Global Lead Network website at http://www.globalleadnet.org/policy_leg/policy/leadgas_progress.cfn.
59. H. Needleman, J. Reiss, M. tobin, G Biesecker, and J. Greenhouse. "Bone lead levels and delinquent behavior." Journal of American Medical Association 275, 5 (1996).
60. See http://www.twnside.org.sg/title/gary-cn.htm
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid.
63. Al Krebs, "Chemical Poison Exports Abroad Increase in 1997-2000 by 15% from 1992-1996, Including 65 Million pds. Of U.S. Banned Poisons," Agribusiness Examiner No. 142 (February 4, 2002).
64. Geoffrey lean, "At a Glance," Our Planet Vol. 12, No. 2 (2001): 16.
65. Environmental Pollution and Degradation Causes 40 percent of Deaths Worldwide, Cornell Study Finds." Cornell News, September 30, 1998. See http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Sept98/ecodisease.hrs.html.
66. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Environmental Diseases from A to Z. NIH Publication No. 96-4145. http://www.nieehs.nih.gov.
67. Environmental Pollution and Degradation Causes 40 percent of Deaths Worldwide, Cornell Study Finds." Cornell News, September 30, 1998. See http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Sept98/ecodisease.hrs.html.
68. Occupational and Environmental Working Group-Toronto Cancer Prevention Coalition. Preventing Occupational and Environmental Cancer: A Strategy for Toronto, 2001. Also see http://www.uswa.ca/eng/hs&e/prevcancer.pdf.
69. P.S. Mead, L. Slutsker, V. Dietz, L.F. McCaig, J.S. Bresee, C. Shapiro, P.M. Griffin, and R.V. Tauxe, "Food-Related Illness and Death in the United States," Emerging Infectious Diseases Journal 5 (September-October 1999).
70. Ibid.
71. Ibid.
72. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Environmental Diseases from A to Z. NIH Publication No. 96-4145 (1996); NIEHS, "Lead -- The #1 Environmental Hazard to many Children," NIEHS Fact Sheet #8, LEAD (March, 1997). http://www/niehs.nih.gov/oc/factsheets/fslead.htm.
73. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, "HHS Helps in Effort to Eliminate Childhood Lead Poisoning," HHS Fact Sheet (March 4, 2002).
74. D. R. Wernett, D. R. & L. A. Nieves. Breathing polluted air: Minorities are disproportionately exposed. EPA Journal, 18: (1992): 16-17.
75. Robert D. Bullard. "Climate Justice and People of Color." http://www.ejrc.cau.edu/climatechgpoc.htm.
76. "Asthma's At-A-Glance 1999." http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/asthma_old/ataglance/default.htm
77. Ibid.
78. Centers for Disease Control, "Asthma: United States, 1980-1990," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 39(1992), pp. 733-735.; See also Robert D. Bullard, Glenn S. Johnson, and Angel O. Torres. Sprawl City: Race, Politics, and Planning in Atlanta, Washington, DC: Island Press, 2000.
79. "Asthma's At-A-Glance." http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/asthma_old/ataglance/default.htm
80. H.P. Mak, H.Abbey, and R.C.Talamo, "Prevalence of Asthma and Health Service Utilization of Asthmatic Children in an Inner City," Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 70 (1982), pp. 367-372; I.F. Goldstein and A.L. Weinstein, "Air Pollution and Asthma: Effects of Exposure to Short-Term Sulfur Dioxide Peaks," Environmental Research 40 (1986), pp. 332-345; J. Schwartz, D. Gold, D.W. Dockey, S.T. Weiss, and F.E. Speizer, "Predictors of Asthma and Persistent Wheeze in a National Sample of Children in the United States," American Review of Respiratory Disease 142 (1990), pp.555-562; F. Crain, K. Weiss, J. Bijur, et al., "An estimate of the Prevalence of Asthma and Wheezing among Inner-City Children," Pediatrics 94(1994), pp. 356-362.;See also Robert D. Bullard, Glenn S. Johnson, and Angel O. Torres. Race, Equity, and Smart Growth: Why People of Color Must Speak for Themselves. Atlanta, GA: Environmental Justice Resource Center, 2000.
81. "Asthma's At-A-Glance 1999." http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/asthma_old/ataglance/default.htm
82. Commission for Racial Justice. Toxic wastes and race in the United States. New York: United Church of Christ, 1987.
83. Robert D. Bullard and Beverly H. Wright. "The Quest for Environmental Equity: Mobilizing the African-American Community for Social Change." Society and Natural Resources, Vol.3, 1990: 301-311.
84. Robert D. Bullard. "The Legacy of American Apartheid and Environmental Racism." St. John's Journal of Legal Commentary, Vol.9, Issue 2, (Spring 1994): 445-474; See also Robert D. Bullard, Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality (3rd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000.
85. R. Twombly. (1997). "Urban uprising." Environmental Health Perspective 105 (July): 696-701.
86. See Robert D. Bullard, Glenn S. Johnson, and Angel O. Torres. Race, Equity, and Smart Growth: Why People of Color Must Speak for Themselves. Atlanta, GA: Environmental Justice Resource Center, 2000.
87. "Study: Public Housing is too Often Located Near Toxic Sites." Dallas Morning News, October 3, 2000. See http://www.cnn.com/2000/NATURE/10/03/toxicneighbors.ap/
88. Robert D. Bullard, Glenn S. Johnson, and Angel O. Torres. Race, Equity, and Smart Growth: Why People of Color Must Speak for Themselves. Atlanta, GA: Environmental Justice Resource Center, 2000.
89. Robert D. Bullard, Glenn S. Johnson, and Angel O. Torres. Race, Equity, and Smart Growth: Why People of Color Must Speak for Themselves. Atlanta, GA: Environmental Justice Resource Center, 2000.
90. Child Proofing Our Communities Campaign. March 2001. Poisoned Schools: Invisible Threats, Visible Actions. Falls Church, VA: Center for Health, Environment and Justice; See also http:www.childproofing.org/mapindex.html.
91. Cat Lazaroff. "Pesticide Exposure Threatens Children at School." Environmental News Service, January 5, 2000.
92. Caroline Cox. "Working With Poisons on the Farm." Journal of Pesticide Reform, Vol. 14, No.3, (Fall 1994): 2-5; U.S. General Accounting Office. Pesticides on Farms: Limited Capability Exists to Monitor Occupational Illnesses and Injuries. Report to the Chairman, Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry, U.S. Senate. Washington, D.C. (December 1993).
93. Caroline Cox. "Working With Poisons on the Farm." Journal of Pesticide Reform, Vol. 14, No.3, (Fall 1994): 2-5; A/L. Aspelin. "Pesticide Industry Sales and Usage: 1992 and 1993 Market Estimates. U.S. EPA. Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances." Office of Pesticide Programs. Biological and Economic Analysis Division. Washington, D.C., (June 1994); D.P. Morgan. "Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings. Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA. Office of Pesticide Programs. Health Effects Division, 1989; U.S. EPA Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances. List of chemicals evaluated for carcinogenic potential. Memo from Reto Engler, senior science advisor, Health Effects Division to Health Division Branch Chiefs, et. al. Washington, D.C.(August 31, 1993); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. Centers for Disease Control. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. Microfiche Edition. Sweet, D.V. (ed.). Cincinnati, OH (January 1993).
94. Caroline Cox. "Working With Poisons on the Farm." Journal of Pesticide Reform, Vol. 14, No.3, (Fall 1994): 2-5.
95. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Environmental Diseases from A to Z. NIH Publication No. 96-4145. http://www.nieehs.nih.gov
96. See Sweatshop Watch: Frequently Asked Questions. http://www.sweatshopwatch.org/swatch/questions.html
97. "Sweatshops and Women of Color." http://www.incite-national.org/involve/sweatshops.html.
98. LaDuke, All Our Relations, p. 3.
99. Jessica Reaves and Mark Thompson, "Vieques under Fire: Standoff in Puerto Rico," TIME.com. Teme website at http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,107846,00.html.
100. Al Gedicks. The New Resource Wars: Native and Environmental Struggles Against Multinational Corporations. Boston: South Ends Press, 1993.
101. Winona LaDuke. All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land Rights and Life. Boston: South End Press, 1999, pp. 2-3.
102. Al Gedicks, Resource Rebels: Native Challenges to Mining and Oil Corporations. Boston: South End Press, 2001.
103. Robert D. Bullard. "Climate Justice and People of Color." http://www.ejrc.cau.edu/climatechgpoc.html

108 comments:

Scott Starr said...

Some would contend that these issues are carnal and not spiritual ...I stand on this and conclude that indeed they are spiritual:

Romans 13:8-11 (Amplified Bible)

8 Keep out of debt and owe no man anything, except to love one another; for he who loves his neighbor [who practices loving others] has fulfilled the Law [relating to one's fellowmen, meeting all its requirements].

9 The commandments, You shall not commit adultery, You shall not kill, You shall not steal, You shall not covet (have an evil desire), and any other commandment, are summed up in the single command, You shall love your neighbor as [you do] yourself.(A)

10 Love does no wrong to one's neighbor [it never hurts anybody]. Therefore love meets all the requirements and is the fulfilling of the Law.

11 Besides this you know what [a critical] hour this is, how it is high time now for you to wake up out of your sleep (rouse to reality). For salvation (final deliverance) is nearer to us now than when we first believed (adhered to, trusted in, and relied on Christ, the Messiah).

...and also upon this:

James 5 (Amplified Bible)
Amplified Bible (AMP)

James 5

1 COME NOW, you rich [people], weep aloud and lament over the miseries (the woes) that are surely coming upon you.

2 Your abundant wealth has rotted and is ruined, and your [many] garments have become moth-eaten.

3 Your gold and silver are completely rusted through, and their rust will be testimony against you and it will devour your flesh as if it were fire. You have heaped together treasure for the last days.

4 [But] look! [Here are] the wages that you have withheld by fraud from the laborers who have reaped your fields, crying out [for vengeance]; and the cries of the harvesters have come to the ears of the Lord of hosts.

5 [Here] on earth you have abandoned yourselves to soft (prodigal) living and to [the pleasures of] self-indulgence and self-gratification. You have fattened your hearts in a day of slaughter.

6 You have condemned and have murdered the righteous (innocent man), [while] he offers no resistance to you.

7 So be patient, brethren, [as you wait] till the coming of the Lord. See how the farmer waits expectantly for the precious harvest from the land. [See how] he keeps up his patient [vigil] over it until it receives the early and late rains.

8 So you also must be patient. Establish your hearts [strengthen and confirm them in the final certainty], for the coming of the Lord is near.



*SELAH!

*Selah ( Hebrew: סלה) meaning "pause, reflection" or "pause, and calmly think on that", within the context of a prayer or psalms, is similar in purpose to Amen in that it stresses the importance of the preceding passage.

Scott Starr said...

The case of Ecuador vs. Texaco as discussed HERE is a perfect example of the principles I am addressing.

Scott Starr said...

I want to state plainly and unequivocally here that the whole thing about the environmental concern and ecology is not just about "tree- hugging" and the poor little fuzzy animals. Its about morality. Its about loving your neighbor and taking care of that which God has given us commands and responsibilities to tend. That is the meaning of dominion- not domination- caretaking. In the American Indian worldview it is often stated that they do not see themselves as superior to creation- the ecosystems and creatures and networks that God has put on this planet to sustain, feed, nurture and give purpose and meaning to us as humans as well. They see humans as part of the whole. This may grate upon the ears of certain modern Christian understandings- but at the heart of that worldview it is synonymous with the Biblical concept of stewardship and care for one's neighbor. In fact we as humans are a vital part of the whole because we are designed to be the tenders of the garden- stewards, caretakers and protectors of the whole. Too many times Christians see this world as not their home, as a temporary, disposable testing ground for certifying their right to get to Heaven. Listen, even if this world will eventually be burned up at the conclusion of God's purpose for it- in no way are we relieved of our responsibility to take care of it now while we are still here. In fact, how we do that is one of the major things we will be judged on- how we play the role god designed us for- as stewards of his garden and caretakers of the poor, sick and downtrodden. I am really disheartened and confused that people don't see that clearly.

The real enemy of man has been very effective at steering people away from the truth and things that really matter about our existence."

*SELAH!

*Selah ( Hebrew: סלה) meaning "pause, reflection" or "pause, and calmly think on that", within the context of a prayer or psalms, is similar in purpose to Amen in that it stresses the importance of the preceding passage.

Scott Starr said...

Click HERE for more on The Meaning of Genesis

Blair said...

Traditional Native Amercans protest the commerical and industrial explotation of their tribal lands, but "traditional" is an euphemism for "minority." Tribal councils consistantly vote for just about any project, including radioactive waste sites, that bring in revenue. Modern Native American culture is becoming "casino culture."

The preception that Native American tribes occupy the land "of their creation" is false. For example, the Navajo arrived in the Southwest at about the same time as the Spanish; the Apache and Commanche came later. The Lakota Sioux reached the Black Hills around 1775, after the French had already explored it. The Lakota did beat the first permanent white settlers but only by about 40 years. The Native American population was in constant flux prior to the arrival of the Europeans. They conducted incessant, genocidal warfare against one another as they migrated due to climate change and pressure from hostile tribes. The purpose of this wafare was to decimate or exterminate rival tribes and push them off their land.

Christianity has been the chief instrument in the destruction of Native American culture. The Spaqnish, in particulary, used Christianity as their justification for demanding submission for Native American tribes. They were sincere in their belief that they were during Native Americans a favor by destroying their religion and spirtual practices.

Scott Starr said...

Blair, I agree with you on all counts.

I especially have some strong misgivings about the "casino/bingo/smokeshop/tourist trap" culture that is pervading Native "tradition" these days.

I also have some strong criticisms for "Christendom" concerning their relationship to the Native Peoples and the legacy left in the wake of empire.

Check out my post "A Violated Covenant" concerning these things.

Scott Starr said...

Blair, I retract my "agreement on all counts' with your statements.

This statement, "They conducted incessant, genocidal warfare against one another" is patently false.
"Amerindian" societies co-existed in relative harmony for thousands of years. There was constant tension and even violence among rival groups, but your blanket statement concerning this reeks of rationalization for the genocide of the European colonizers.

Anonymous said...

Nice weblog here! Additionally your website loads up very
fast! What web host are you using? Can I get your associate hyperlink on your host?
I want my web site loaded up as quickly as yours
lol
my site: action replay codes

Anonymous said...

Excellent web site you've got here.. It's hard to find quality writing like
yours nowadays. I seriously appreciate people like you!
Take care!!
Take a look at my website a beautiful Mind quotes

Anonymous said...

Hey, I think your blog might be having browser compatibility issues.
When I look at your blog site in Firefox, it looks fine but when opening
in Internet Explorer, it has some overlapping. I just
wanted to give you a quick heads up! Other then that,
wonderful blog!
Check out my weblog - abscessed tooth treatment

Anonymous said...

Hello to all, it's actually a pleasant for me to go to see this web page, it includes helpful Information.
Look at my site ; http://chungmoksa.com/sharing/4682

Anonymous said...

Hey very interesting blog!
My homepage lasierrademonfrague.es

Anonymous said...

I am regular visitor, how are you everybody? This piece of writing posted at
this site is genuinely fastidious.
Feel free to visit my web-site Hotmail email directory

Anonymous said...

I simply couldn't depart your website before suggesting that I extremely loved the usual information a person supply in your guests? Is going to be again steadily in order to inspect new posts
Here is my web site ... osalo.biz

Anonymous said...

I feel this is one of the so much important information for
me. And i am satisfied studying your article.
However wanna statement on some common things, The
website style is great, the articles is really great : D.

Excellent activity, cheers
Here is my website :: hotmail email account

Anonymous said...

I feel this is one of the so much important information for me.
And i am satisfied studying your article. However wanna statement on some common things, The
website style is great, the articles is really great : D.
Excellent activity, cheers
my webpage :: hotmail email account

Anonymous said...

Hi there! This article couldn't be written any better! Looking at this post reminds me of my previous roommate! He always kept preaching about this. I will forward this post to him. Pretty sure he will have a good read. Thanks for sharing!
Here is my weblog adjectives that start with e

Anonymous said...

Hi! I've been reading your web site for some time now and finally got the courage to go ahead and give you a shout out from Austin Tx! Just wanted to say keep up the great work!
Take a look at my blog :: www.prchecktool.com

Anonymous said...

Simply wish to say your article is as astonishing.
The clearness on your put up is just nice and that i can suppose you're a professional on this subject. Well together with your permission let me to snatch your feed to stay up to date with forthcoming post. Thank you a million and please keep up the gratifying work.
Here is my web-site addicting games.com potty racers

Anonymous said...

When someone writes an piece of writing he/she retains the thought of a user in his/her brain that
how a user can understand it. So that's why this piece of writing is amazing. Thanks!
Feel free to surf my web page ; adidas store

Anonymous said...

I don't even know how I ended up here, but I thought this post was great. I do not know who you are but definitely you're going to a
famous blogger if you aren't already ;) Cheers!
Also see my website - action replay codes for mario kart ds

Anonymous said...

Superb blog! Do you have any suggestions for aspiring writers?
I'm planning to start my own website soon but I'm a little lost on everything.
Would you suggest starting with a free platform like Wordpress or go for a paid option?
There are so many choices out there that I'm totally confused .. Any tips? Appreciate it!
Also visit my webpage :: address books spiral bound

Anonymous said...

I like what you guys are usually up too. This type of clever work
and exposure! Keep up the wonderful works guys I've you guys to my own blogroll.
Also visit my web-site abrir correo hotmail españa

Anonymous said...

I like the valuable information you provide in your articles.
I'll bookmark your blog and check again here regularly. I am quite sure I will learn many new stuff right here! Good luck for the next!
Stop by my web blog - hotmail login failure

Anonymous said...

Just wish to say your article is as amazing. The clarity in your post is just spectacular and
that i can suppose you are knowledgeable on this subject.
Well with your permission allow me to take hold of your feed to keep updated with coming
near near post. Thank you one million and please carry on the enjoyable work.
My web page :: abigworld Asmallworld

Anonymous said...

Excellent site you've got here.. It's hard to
find good quality writing like yours nowadays.
I truly appreciate individuals like you! Take care!
!
Here is my blog post - http://buy-meratol.jigsy.com

Anonymous said...

I am really loving the theme/design of your site. Do you ever run into any internet browser compatibility issues?
A couple of my blog audience have complained about
my site not working correctly in Explorer but
looks great in Firefox. Do you have any solutions to help fix this
issue?
My page > buy meratol

Anonymous said...

This site truly has all the information I needed about this subject and
didn't know who to ask.
Also visit my homepage :: aau basketball rankings

Anonymous said...

Wow, superb blog layout! How long have you been blogging for?
you make blogging look easy. The overall look of your
web site is fantastic, as well as the content!
Visit my page ; krudy-nyh.sulinet.hu

Anonymous said...

Wonderful site you have here but I was wanting to know if
you knew of any message boards that cover the same topics discussed in this article?

I'd really love to be a part of group where I can get comments from other knowledgeable individuals that share the same interest. If you have any recommendations, please let me know. Kudos!

my blog post - acdc albums

Anonymous said...

Hey! Someone in my Myspace group shared this website with us so I came
to take a look. I'm definitely enjoying the information. I'm book-marking and will
be tweeting this to my followers! Exceptional blog and superb style and design.


Review my website: acupuncture model

Anonymous said...

This information is priceless. How can I find out more?

Here is my blog http://thejuddjitteam.Blogspot.fr/

Anonymous said...

I don't know if it's just me or if perhaps everyone else experiencing problems with
your website. It appears like some of the written text within your posts are running off the screen.
Can someone else please provide feedback and let me know if
this is happening to them as well? This may be a problem with my internet
browser because I've had this happen previously. Thank you

My blog - hotmail .com Sign up

Anonymous said...

We are a bunch of volunteers and starting a brand new scheme
in our community. Your site provided us with useful info to work on.

You have done a formidable process and our entire community might be grateful to you.



My blog: http://www.ushomeguide.ws/user_detail.php?u=omaxutbec
Also see my site > abortion clinics in atlanta

Anonymous said...

I've been surfing online more than 3 hours today, yet I never found any interesting article like yours. It's pretty
worth enough for me. In my opinion, if all webmasters and bloggers made good content as you did, the net will be much
more useful than ever before.

Also visit my blog post ... diet plans

Anonymous said...

In fact, you really have no slot machines for sale education
or experience requirements to conduct business
as a slot machines for sale. When you enter into a relationship with a
custom homebuilder similar to hiring a long-term employee.
Other titles for slot machines for sales are project managers, but they hire either Architects or Craftsmen to do the job.

Using the stud markings below the cabinet as a guide, secure three screws into each stud; use
shims to ensure that what you� re doing is up to date with design trends.


Also visit my web page: slot machines buy

Anonymous said...

As we have been saying for months, if you do decide to get a realistic idea.
3 Make Sure that you visit a couple of reasons. The home builders in tennessee is a person
or company. If you're still concerned, you can set the consequences that could occur on the job as much as possible, and you can consistently beforehand changes and alternation that you wish to be made.

my web-site :: tennessee contractors

Anonymous said...

I don't know if it's just me or if everybody else experiencing problems with your blog.
It looks like some of the text in your content are running off the screen.
Can someone else please comment and let me know if this is happening to them as well?
This might be a problem with my web browser because I've had this happen before. Appreciate it

Also visit my site :: landing page design

Anonymous said...

However, pay day loans are now and again repaid over as short a period as three months. Similarly, the GCCM and ASAP records don't show whether or not the funds received by Defendants from your Account included the Collateral, or even any section of it [url=http://onlinepaydayloans-4u.co.uk/]online payday loans[/url] chances are you'll be shocked to view some main banks along with on-line lenders competing for which you happen to be promoting online. This ensures that in the event you default in your loan, these assets could be removed by you as your payment for that loan. So go to get a no credit check cash advance, if you have a a bad credit score score online payday loans well, in case you are reading these very words you might be just minutes from finding one. Besides, if she has a low credit score record, he will be unsuccessful when you get his money sanctioned. Yes you can get a loan so you probably don't possess to place very much down http://onlinepaydayloans-4u.co.uk they had a thought for the niche product which seemed to be quite unlikely to get a winning formula as far as russell could see.

Anonymous said...

In general, people borrow this deal to obtain reduce urgent issues including wellness, grocery, water supply, Federal Grants For Starting A Small Business , school fees and also other issues also. This aspect of the kind of loan can be one from the reasons for the pre-requisite in the 15% equity within the home [url=http://paydayloans-nofax.co.uk/]paydayloans online[/url] you can either lower your monthly payments or shorten the space of the term and pay less interest overall. You will not likely should provide anything extra than the necessary details itself. This financial aid is crafted particularly for salaried group online payday loans persons willing to adopt a bank card debt consolidation loan tend to be times offered the contrary of balance transfers. As a result, a businessman could get the quick amount into the lending company account within few hours. Before getting the certain finance through emergency cash loans for unemployed you've to meet with some specific conditions http://paydayloans-nofax.co.uk small online application process: at va streamline refinance loan money, we've got arranged cash through suitable online application procedure on your convenience.

Anonymous said...

WOW just what I was searching for. Came here by
searching for sportmart inc

Here is my page; exercises to increase vertical

Anonymous said...

Hola! I've been reading your blog for a while now and finally got the courage to go ahead and give you a shout out from Huffman Tx! Just wanted to mention keep up the excellent work!

Check out my homepage :: landing page design

Anonymous said...

Thanks to my father who stated to me about this blog,
this web site is truly amazing.

Here is my web-site - landing page design

Anonymous said...

I am sure this article has touched all the internet
users, its really really fastidious paragraph on building up new website.


Also visit my web site ... http://tennis4gatti.com/DenisePit

Anonymous said...

I have been browsing online more than 3 hours as of late, but I never discovered any fascinating article like
yours. It's pretty value enough for me. In my view, if all site owners and bloggers made excellent content as you did, the web shall be a lot more helpful than ever before.

My blog post :: exercises for vertical leap

Anonymous said...

Hey there would you mind stating which blog platform you're using? I'm planning to
start my own blog in the near future but I'm having a difficult time choosing between BlogEngine/Wordpress/B2evolution and Drupal. The reason I ask is because your design seems different then most blogs and I'm looking
for something unique. P.S Sorry for getting
off-topic but I had to ask!

Feel free to surf to my website - exercises for Vertical leap

Anonymous said...

What's up, its good article about media print, we all know media is a wonderful source of facts.

my web-site - diets that work

Anonymous said...

I enjoy reading through an article that will make men and women
think. Also, many thanks for permitting me to comment!


Check out my homepage ... diets that work

Anonymous said...

You ought to be a part of a contest for one of the finest blogs on
the web. I will recommend this web site!

my web site :: vertical jump exercises

Anonymous said...

These are in fact great ideas in on the topic of blogging.

You have touched some fastidious points here. Any way keep up wrinting.


Here is my web-site - hotmail search

Anonymous said...

Because the admin of this web page is working, no question very rapidly it will be well-known, due to its
feature contents.

Also visit my web site windows live hotmail

Anonymous said...

Because the admin of this web page is working, no question very rapidly it will
be well-known, due to its feature contents.


my site windows live hotmail

Anonymous said...

You made some good points there. I looked on the net to find out more about the issue and found most people will go along with your views on this web site.


my website - nokia e5 specification

Anonymous said...

You made some good points there. I looked on the net to find out
more about the issue and found most people will
go along with your views on this web site.

Check out my web blog nokia e5 specification

Anonymous said...

Howdy! This article could not be written any better!
Looking at this post reminds me of my previous roommate! He always kept preaching about this.
I most certainly will forward this post to him.
Pretty sure he will have a great read. Thank you for sharing!


Also visit my blog post: live hotmail

Anonymous said...

Howdy! I know this is kinda off topic however I'd figured I'd ask.
Would you be interested in exchanging links or maybe guest authoring a blog article or vice-versa?
My blog discusses a lot of the same subjects as yours and I feel we could greatly benefit from each other.
If you are interested feel free to send me an email.
I look forward to hearing from you! Terrific blog by the way!



Also visit my webpage :: http://Www.Ertanozgur.tk

Anonymous said...

We're a gaggle of volunteers and opening a brand new scheme in our community. Your website provided us with helpful information to work on. You have done an impressive task and our entire group might be thankful to you.

Also visit my blog post custom landing page

Anonymous said...

Hi there! I understand this is somewhat off-topic however I had to ask.
Does managing a well-established website like yours require a massive amount
work? I'm brand new to writing a blog however I do write in my diary daily. I'd like to start
a blog so I can share my own experience and thoughts online.
Please let me know if you have any kind of ideas or tips for new aspiring bloggers.
Appreciate it!

my web blog; exercises for vertical jump

Anonymous said...

Write more, thats all I have to say. Literally, it seems as though you
relied on the video to make your point. You obviously know what youre talking about, why throw away your intelligence on just posting videos to your weblog when
you could be giving us something enlightening to read?


Also visit my website vertical jump program

Anonymous said...

Wow that was odd. I just wrote an very long comment but after I clicked submit my comment didn't appear. Grrrr... well I'm not writing
all that over again. Anyway, just wanted to say excellent blog!


Check out my web blog exercises to improve vertical jump

Anonymous said...

Wow that was odd. I just wrote an incredibly long
comment but after I clicked submit my comment didn't appear. Grrrr... well I'm not writing all that over again.
Anyway, just wanted to say fantastic blog!

Feel free to visit my homepage Socialcomputing.trojanifsc.net

Anonymous said...

When I originally commented I clicked the "Notify me when new comments are added" checkbox and now each time a comment is added I get three e-mails with the same comment.

Is there any way you can remove people from that service?
Thanks a lot!

Also visit my web blog - akleinhout.ruhosting.nl

Anonymous said...

I always spent my half an hour to read this webpage's content daily along with a cup of coffee.

Look into my web page exercises to increase vertical leap

Anonymous said...

Informative article, exactly what I wanted to find.


My webpage workouts to increase vertical leap

Anonymous said...

You do not have to invest hours at the health club or exert so significantly work and energy in doing function
out just to be capable to tone your muscle tissues.


Feel free to surf to my site :: Flex Belt

Anonymous said...

We are a group of volunteers and opening a new scheme in our community.
Your web site provided us with helpful info to work
on. You've done an impressive task and our whole neighborhood shall be thankful to you.

Here is my web site - vertical jump workouts

Anonymous said...

Very nice post. I just stumbled upon your weblog and
wanted to say that I've really enjoyed surfing around your blog posts. In any case I'll be subscribing to your feed and I hope
you write again very soon!

Visit my web page: workouts for vertical leap

Anonymous said...

I go to see daily a few sites and websites to read articles or reviews, however
this weblog offers quality based content.

My blog post - goldcoastproduction.com

Anonymous said...

Hmm is anyone else having problems with the images on this blog loading?
I'm trying to figure out if its a problem on my end or if it's the blog.

Any feedback would be greatly appreciated.

Have a look at my web page - http://ecustomdiet.com

Anonymous said...

At this time it seems like Drupal is the top blogging platform out
there right now. (from what I've read) Is that what you're using on your blog?


Here is my blog post ... https://vle.um.edu.mt/

Anonymous said...

Hey I am so happy I found your site, I really found you by error, while I was researching on Google for something
else, Anyhow I am here now and would just like to say cheers for a incredible post and
a all round interesting blog (I also love the theme/design), I don't have time to go through it all at the minute but I have book-marked it and also included your RSS feeds, so when I have time I will be back to read much more, Please do keep up the great work.

Visit my page; vertical leap exercises

Anonymous said...

May I simply just say what a comfort to find someone
that genuinely knows what they're discussing over the internet. You certainly realize how to bring a problem to light and make it important. More people really need to look at this and understand this side of your story. I was surprised that you're not
more popular since you certainly have the gift.


Also visit my website workouts to increase vertical jump

Anonymous said...

Your style is unique compared to other people I have read stuff
from. Thank you for posting when you've got the opportunity, Guess I will just bookmark this site.

Review my site viavio.net

Anonymous said...

I am not sure where you are getting your info, however great topic.
I needs to spend some time finding out much more or figuring out more.
Thanks for great information I was in search of this info for my mission.


Visit my web site joonjeong.kr

Anonymous said...

Yes! Finally someone writes about accounts.

Feel free to surf to my web-site Http://lzyves.Free.fr/

Anonymous said...

Hello, i read your blog occasionally and i own a similar one and i was just curious if you get a
lot of spam remarks? If so how do you prevent it, any
plugin or anything you can recommend? I get so much lately it's driving me mad so any assistance is very much appreciated.

Stop by my web page; ranking kredytów hipotecznych

Anonymous said...

Are you in need of a loan? Do you want to pay off your bills? Do you want to be financially stable? All you have to do is to contact us for more information on how to get started and get the loan you desire. This offer is open to all that will be able to repay back in due time. Note-that repayment time frame is negotiable and at interest rate of 3% just email us creditloan.1111@gmail.com

Dr Purva Pius said...

My name is.Mrs.Anna Daniel. I live in Ukraine i am a happy woman today? i need to use this time to tell all people how i got my loan from this honest and God fearing man loan lender that help me with a loan of $84,000 please contact him. if you also need a loan without any problem he name is Dr Purva Pius email {urgentloan22@gmail.com} tell him that is Mrs.Anna Daniel that refer you to he contact Email {urgentloan22@gmail.com}


BORROWERS APPLICATION DETAILS


1. Name Of Applicant in Full:……..
2. Telephone Numbers:……….
3. Address and Location:…….
4. Amount in request………..
5. Repayment Period:………..
6. Purpose Of Loan………….
7. country…………………
8. phone…………………..
9. occupation………………
10.age/sex…………………
11.Monthly Income…………..
12.Email……………..

Regards.
Managements
Email Kindly Contact: {urgentloan22@gmail.com}

dkm said...

India's leading Hazardous Waste Incinerator Manufacturer since 1985. We have supplied more than 300 plants (waste management, disposal, hazardous incinerator, explosive waste, municipal waste) for various applications all over the world.

https://www.mcclellandindia.com/index.html
https://www.mcclellandindia.com/index.html

Unknown said...

I really loved reading your blog. I also found
your posts very interesting. In fact after reading, I had to go show it to my
friend and he ejoyed it as well!
Belgium Fifa World Cup 2018 T Shirts

URGENT LOAN OFFER WHATSAPP +918929509036 said...

Hello Everybody,
My name is Mrs Sharon Sim. I live in Singapore and i am a happy woman today? and i told my self that any lender that rescue my family from our poor situation, i will refer any person that is looking for loan to him, he gave me happiness to me and my family, i was in need of a loan of $250,000.00 to start my life all over as i am a single mother with 3 kids I met this honest and GOD fearing man loan lender that help me with a loan of $250,000.00 SG. Dollar, he is a GOD fearing man, if you are in need of loan and you will pay back the loan please contact him tell him that is Mrs Sharon, that refer you to him. contact Dr Purva Pius,via email:(urgentloan22@gmail.com) Thank you.

Compost Plants said...

Alfa Therm Compost Plants running all across the country on electrical and hydraulic modules. Our dynamic teams focus their energy and resources to offer the very best solutions to customer needs.

Olvia johnson said...

Hi, I applaud your blog for informing people, very interesting article, keep up it coming Smile.

Anonymous said...

Very useful article that I ever read. Thank you for sharing your blog.

Synta Mobie said...

I just like the valuable info you supply to your articles. I will bookmark your blog and take a look at once more right here frequently. I am fairly sure I will be informed lots of new stuff right here! Good luck for the next!
Factoring Trade Finance

rightchoice said...

This is a great inspiring article.I am pretty much pleased with your good work. Please share good post on Study MBBS In Kyrgyzstan also. Keep it up. Keep blogging. Looking to reading your next post.

rightchoice said...

Nice idea!! Thank you so much for such information.I’ve been waiting patiently for your next blog entry!
Ternopil State Medical University

East Point School said...

Thanks for taking the time to discuss and share this with us, I for one feel strongly about it and really enjoyed learning more about this topic. Please share some more useful info on best schools in ajman also. I can see that you possess a degree of expertise on this subject.

quotes4home said...



Shop from any USA online stores and Ship to your Doorstep anywhere in the world. We provide Free USA Address so you can shop from USA and Ship Internationally.


shop and ship
myus
us forwarding address

Bushraah88 said...

I am really enjoying reading your well written articles. It looks like you spend a lot of effort and time on your blog. I have bookmarked it and I am looking forward to reading new articles. Keep up the good work.
One Machine Learning
One data science
Bissi.Global

Bushraah88 said...


I am really enjoying reading your well written articles. It looks like you spend a lot of effort and time on your blog. I have bookmarked it and I am looking forward to reading new articles. Keep up the good work.
One Machine Learning
One data science
Bissi.Global

fatima said...

WebnWays is a company providing professional-level website design and development solution, Web development, Brand designs, Mobile apps Development Full-featured online stores, Software development, SEO Services ,etc.
Seo experts Islamabad Pakistan
Seo services Islamabad Pakistan

Mobile apps development Islamabad Pakistan

Website development Islamabad Pakistan

Digital marketing Islamabad Pakistan

fatima said...

Generator in Islamabad
Cctv cameras Islamabad
HVAC & VRF Central Cooling Systems Islamabad Rawalpindi Lahore Karachi
Gree Acson Diakin Cieling Cassettes Islamabad Rawalpindi Lahore Karachi

jasonbob said...

adidas yeezy
yeezy supply
balenciaga sneakers
curry shoes
giannis shoes
steph curry shoes
golden goose outlet
off white outlet
moncler outlet
supreme clothing

thomasjack said...

It was a nice post really, I like it.
cereal boxes in bulk
display boxes near me

thomasjack said...

Lovely product thanks for sharing the information post to keep it up.
jewelry boxes near me
lipstick boxes bulk

thomasjack said...
This comment has been removed by the author.
Mikel lee said...

I appreciate your post thanks for sharing the information.
packaging boxes in bulk
bottle neckers packaging boxes manufacturers

Mikel lee said...

It is very informative post thanks for sharing the information.
bottle neckers packaging supplies
custom bottle neckers wholesale

Serina johson said...

Amazing product thanks for sharing with us It is very informative.
affordable printed Handover Boxes
best Custom Printed Lingerie Boxes

Serina johson said...

Such a great post I like it very much keep it up.
afforadable Holiday Party Boxes new jersey
affordable custom Hotel Boxes

cathrine jack said...

Call Phone Boxes
Popcorn Boxes
Bath Bomb Boxes
Playing Card Boxes
Chocolate Boxes
Sleeve boxes
Game Boxes
eyeshadow-boxes

Mary Davies said...

Beautifully designed custom kraft boxes are the best tool to market your product. So, using small custom boxes helps you in grabbing customer's attention.

Custom boxes said...

Incredible post! A debt of gratitude is for sharing a piece of information It would be helpful for newbies, continue to post. I like your endeavors.

Anonymous Girl said...

Great post I like it very much keep up the good work. Read my blog Kraft Boxes- A Done in One Option for All your Packaging Necessities

Emily Anders said...

You did a fantastic job by posting this article. it is very interesting and very useful. Keep posting.
Options And Criteria To Choose Cardboard Packaging For Clothing

DCC Infra Pvt. Ltd. said...

Thanks for Sharing this Excellent Information. I like it very much.

https://zerowasterecycler.wordpress.com/2021/10/20/organic-waste-composting-machine-in-india/

How to Make product photos during Pandemic said...

lovely post .